Huntington Disease Dementia
No Results
No Results
processing….
Huntington disease (HD) is a genetic, autosomal dominant, neurodegenerative disorder characterized clinically by disorders of movement, progressive dementia, and psychiatric and/or behavioral disturbance. In 1872, George Huntington, MD, presented a disease featuring “hereditary nature, adult onset, chorea, mind impairment,” and “with a tendency to insanity and suicide.” Although Huntington was not the first to describe this “dancing mania,” his account was so comprehensive that he received international recognition. In the following 128 years, HD has inspired thousands of research papers in which elucidation of this unrelenting neurodegenerative disorder has been attempted.
The progressive nature of the disorder, the variation in symptoms, and the complexity of diagnosis and treatment is well portrayed in a case study published by Lipe and Bird. They reviewed clinical and genetic features in 34 cases of late-onset Huntington disease. [1]
Among the cases reviewed was a 74-year-old male who presented with mild chorea, memory problems, and anxiety at the age of 61 years. Though his family had no known history of HD, a number of family members were believed to have been afflicted by dementia, a staggering gait, emphysema, and Parkinson disease. Genetic testing revealed 43 CAG repeats in the HD gene. His motor and cognitive function deteriorated over several years following diagnosis. Mild depression progressed to severe depression and suicidal thoughts, followed by psychosis including delusions and hallucinations, requiring multiple psychiatric hospitalizations.
Huntington disease (HD) is associated with an excessive sequence of CAG repeats in the 5′ end of HTT (alias IT15- interesting transcript number 15), a 350-kD gene located on the short arm of chromosome 4. [2] Healthy individuals may have between 9 and 35 CAG repeats, while patients diagnosed with HD, as well as carriers, have an abnormal expansion accommodating 36 or more CAG repeats. [3] The HTT gene, or HD gene, codes for a protein called huntingtin. This protein is found in neurons throughout the brain; its normal function is unknown. In affected patients, neuronal degeneration initiates in the striatum and progresses to the cerebral cortex, following a pattern that correlates to clinical progression of HD. [2]
Possibly, the abnormal huntingtin protein undergoes proteolysis and is then transported to the nucleus, where it undergoes aggregation. Transport to the nucleus may involve specific protein-to-protein interactions that occur in certain cell types only, possibly explaining the selective neuronal vulnerability present in patients with HD. The genetic mutation is theorized to cause an imbalance between free radical production and removal, resulting in the subsequent neuronal degeneration and neurotransmitter decline.
Great insight has been shed on the HD gene on a molecular level; however, if and how this leads to the clinical symptoms of HD still are not clear. Evidence also indicates the presence of inappropriate neuronal apoptosis in persons with HD. Symptoms result from the selective loss of neurons, mostly in the caudate nucleus and putamen. Vonsattel et al devised a neural pathologic grading system that scaled the microscopic and gross striatum changes. The grades of this scale range from 0 (normal) to 4 (severe neuronal loss; astrocytosis; and atrophy of the globus, pallidus, and caudate putamen).
The role of mitochondrial dysfunction in HD has been under investigation. Quintanilla et al published the results of a study that focused on the contribution of mitochondrial dysfunction and transcriptional dysregulation to the pathogenesis of HD and the possibility of therapeutic intervention. The authors note that impaired energy generally precedes clinical diagnosis of HD, suggesting that the disruption of energy homeostasis is linked to the pathogenesis of HD. Based on their findings, Quintanilla et al suggest the possibility that the effects of mutant HD can be reduced by increasing the availability and activity of PGC-1 α, a co-activator involved in mitochondrial function and glucose, lipid, and energy homeostasis, the function of which seems to be disrupted by mutant HD interactions that interfere with signaling pathways. [2]
Neurochemically, levels of transmitter substances (eg, GABA and its synthetic enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase) are markedly decreased throughout the basal ganglia. Levels of acetylcholine, substance P, and enkephalins are also reduced. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy in living persons with HD has shown elevated levels of lactate in the basal ganglia.
HD supposedly can cause psychiatric disorders in 2 ways: (1) by the direct action of the gene on striatal neurons, and (2) by the indirect effect of the disordered family environment on the children, regardless of whether they inherited the HD gene.
United States
Several epidemiologic studies in the United States, conducted from 1945–1980, show consistent statistics stating that approximately 30,000 people have HD.
Recent estimates of the prevalence of HD in the United States are between 5 and 10 people per 100,000. [4]
International
HD occurs in various geographic and cultural ethnicities worldwide. The worldwide prevalence of this disorder is 5–10 cases per 100,000 persons. In North America and Europe, HD has a prevalence of 0.5-9.95 cases per 100,000 individuals. The prevalence of HD in the United Kingdom is currently estimated at 8 cases per 100,000 individuals. In a study by Walker et al in South Wales, a prevalence of 7.61 cases per 100,000 persons was reported. This study was reanalyzed in 1988 and showed the prevalence to be higher (8.85 cases per 100,000 persons), indicating a slight rise over the years. The prevalence in Japan is estimated at 1 case per 100,000 people. [4]
HD is a progressive disorder, typically lasting approximately 15–20 years from onset of symptoms until death.
Early onset affecting patients younger than 20 years (juvenile HD) is associated with rigidity, ataxia, cognitive decline, and more rapid progression. The typical duration is approximately 8 years. Seizures are more common with juvenile-onset disease than other forms.
Individuals who inherit the disease from their fathers tend to become symptomatic much earlier in life than those who inherit it from their mothers.
Death is usually secondary to pneumonia, cardiopulmonary failure, trauma, or suicide.
No significant differences exist among national and ethnic groups in the number of CAG repeats; however, the higher frequency of HD among white persons and its lower prevalence in other populations, including black persons and Japanese persons, has led to the hypothesis that the mutation responsible for the disease was carried to different parts of the world by immigrant European settlers.
This theory is further supported by the suggestion that the mutation rate in the HD gene is exceedingly low, perhaps the lowest such rate for any human genetic disease. The fact that the mutation rate for HD is higher than previously estimated and that new mutations may account for as many as 3% of the cases is now apparent; therefore, new mutations, in addition to European migration, may account for the disease’s presence in many different and sometimes isolated communities.
HD affects males and females in relatively equal numbers.
The onset of disease usually occurs in the fourth or fifth decade of life, with a wide range in age from childhood to later years in life. Juvenile onset has a large repeat expansion and occurs most often when the father is the affected parent (a form of genetic anticipation).
Lipe H, Bird T. Late onset Huntington Disease: clinical and genetic characteristics of 34 cases. J Neurol Sci. 2009 Jan 15. 276(1-2):159-62. [Medline].
Quintanilla RA, Johnson GV. Role of mitochondrial dysfunction in the pathogenesis of Huntington’s disease. Brain Res Bull. 2009 Oct 28. 80(4-5):242-7. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Robins Wahlin TB. To know or not to know: a review of behaviour and suicidal ideation in preclinical Huntington’s disease. Patient Educ Couns. 2007 Mar. 65(3):279-87. [Medline].
Driver-Dunckley E, Caviness JN. Huntington’s Disease. Schapira AHV. Neurology and Clinical Neuroscience. Elsevier; 2007. 67: 879-885.
Jason GW, Suchowersky O, Pajurkova EM, et al. Cognitive manifestations of Huntington disease in relation to genetic structure and clinical onset. Arch Neurol. 1997 Sep. 54(9):1081-8. [Medline].
van Duijn E, Reedeker N, Giltay EJ, Roos RA, van der Mast RC. Correlates of apathy in Huntington’s disease. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2010 Summer. 22(3):287-94. [Medline].
Solomon AC, Stout JC, Johnson SA, Langbehn DR, Aylward EH, Brandt J, et al. Verbal episodic memory declines prior to diagnosis in Huntington’s disease. Neuropsychologia. 2007 Apr 9. 45(8):1767-76. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Peavy GM, Jacobson MW, Kane AE, Goldstein JL, Mickes L, Lessig S, et al. Proposed Criteria for the Diagnosis of Dementia Associated With Huntington’s Disease (HD). Neurotherapeutics. 2008. 5:373.
Stahl SM, Thiemann S, Faull KF, Barchas JD, Berger PA. Neurochemistry of dopamine in Huntington’s dementia and normal aging. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1986 Feb. 43(2):161-4. [Medline].
Garcia Ruiz PJ, Mena MA, Sanchez Bernardos V, Diaz Neira W, Gimenez Roldan S, Benitez J, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid homovanillic acid is reduced in untreated Huntington’s disease. Clin Neuropharmacol. 1995 Feb. 18(1):58-63. [Medline].
Vattakatuchery JJ, Kurien R. Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors in cognitive impairment in Huntington’s disease: A brief review. World J Psychiatry. 2013 Sep 22. 3(3):62-4. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Bachoud-Levi AC, Remy P, Nguyen JP, Brugieres P, Lefaucheur JP, Bourdet C, et al. Motor and cognitive improvements in patients with Huntington’s disease after neural transplantation. Lancet. 2000 Dec 9. 356(9246):1975-9. [Medline].
Adam OR, Jankovic J. Symptomatic treatment of Huntington disease. Neurotherapeutics. 2008 Apr. 5(2):181-97. [Medline].
Ranen NG, Lipsey JR, Treisman G, Ross CA. Sertraline in the treatment of severe aggressiveness in Huntington’s disease. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1996 Summer. 8(3):338-40. [Medline].
Robins Wahlin TB. To know or not to know: a review of behaviour and suicidal ideation in preclinical Huntington’s disease. Patient Educ Couns. 2007 Mar. 65(3):279-87. [Medline].
Bombard Y, Veenstra G, Friedman JM, Creighton S, Currie L, Paulsen JS, et al. Perceptions of genetic discrimination among people at risk for Huntington’s disease: a cross sectional survey. BMJ. 2009 Jun 9. 338:b2175. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Coulson NS, Buchanan H, Aubeeluck A. Social support in cyberspace: a content analysis of communication within a Huntington’s disease online support group. Patient Educ Couns. 2007 Oct. 68(2):173-8. [Medline].
[Guideline] American Psychiatric Association. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias of late life. Am J Psychiatry. 1997 May. 154(5 Suppl):1-39. [Medline].
Bamford KA, Caine ED, Kido DK, Cox C, Shoulson I. A prospective evaluation of cognitive decline in early Huntington’s disease: functional and radiographic correlates. Neurology. 1995 Oct. 45(10):1867-73. [Medline].
Barami K, Hutchins KD, Lyman WD. Neurotransmitter distribution in the second trimester fetal human corpus striatum. Neurol Res. 2001 Jan. 23(1):16-22. [Medline].
Barnoy S, Tabak N. Israeli nurses and genetic information disclosure. Nurs Ethics. 2007 May. 14(3):280-94. [Medline].
Biglan K, Shoulson I. Juvenile-onset huntington disease: a matter of perspective. Arch Neurol. 2007 Jun. 64(6):783-4. [Medline].
Chou KL, Borek LL, Friedman JH. The management of psychosis in movement disorder patients. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2007 May. 8(7):935-43. [Medline].
Folstein S. Huntington’s Disease: A Disorder of Families. Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press; 1989.
Folstein SE. The psychopathology of Huntington’s disease. Res Publ Assoc Res Nerv Ment Dis. 1991. 69:181-91. [Medline].
Frank S, Biglan K. Long-term fetal cell transplant in Huntington disease: stayin’ alive. Neurology. 2007 Jun 12. 68(24):2055-6. [Medline].
Gilroy J. Basic Neurology. 3rd ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2000.
Gustavson AR, Cummings JL. Cholinesterase inhibitors in non-Alzheimer dementias. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2003 Nov-Dec. 4(6 Suppl):S165-9. [Medline].
Hahn-Barma V, Deweer B, Durr A, Dode C, Feingold J, Pillon B, et al. Are cognitive changes the first symptoms of Huntington’s disease? A study of gene carriers. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1998 Feb. 64(2):172-7. [Medline].
Hakimian R. Disclosure of Huntington’s disease to family members: the dilemma of known but unknowing parties. Genet Test. 2000. 4(4):359-64. [Medline].
Harper P. Huntington’s disease. Harper P, ed. Major Problems of Neurology. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: WB Saunders; 1996.
Harris GJ, Codori AM, Lewis RF, Schmidt E, Bedi A, Brandt J. Reduced basal ganglia blood flow and volume in pre-symptomatic, gene-tested persons at-risk for Huntington’s disease. Brain. 1999 Sep. 122 ( Pt 9):1667-78. [Medline].
Hodges JR, Salmon DP, Butters N. Differential impairment of semantic and episodic memory in Alzheimer’s and Huntington’s diseases: a controlled prospective study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1990 Dec. 53(12):1089-95. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Kallail KJ, Godfrey NE, Suter G, Anthimides L. A multidisciplinary approach to the management of Huntington’s disease. Kans Med. 1989 Nov. 90(11):309-11. [Medline].
Kirkwood SC, Su JL, Conneally P, Foroud T. Progression of symptoms in the early and middle stages of Huntington disease. Arch Neurol. 2001 Feb. 58(2):273-8. [Medline].
Kremer B, Goldberg P, Andrew SE, Theilmann J, Telenius H, Zeisler J, et al. A worldwide study of the Huntington’s disease mutation. The sensitivity and specificity of measuring CAG repeats. N Engl J Med. 1994 May 19. 330(20):1401-6. [Medline].
Marder K, Zhao H, Myers RH, Cudkowicz M, Kayson E, Kieburtz K, et al. Rate of functional decline in Huntington’s disease. Huntington Study Group. Neurology. 2000 Jan 25. 54(2):452-8. [Medline].
Mayeux R, ed. Dementias: Advances in Neurology. New York, NY: Raven; 1983. 38 Vol:
Meiser B, Dunn S. Psychological impact of genetic testing for Huntington”s disease: an update of the literature. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000 Nov. 69(5):574-8. [Medline].
Nance MA. Huntington disease: clinical, genetic, and social aspects. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 1998 Summer. 11(2):61-70. [Medline].
Nehl C, Paulsen JS. Cognitive and psychiatric aspects of Huntington disease contribute to functional capacity. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2004 Jan. 192(1):72-4. [Medline].
Ramaswamy S, Shannon KM, Kordower JH. Huntington’s disease: pathological mechanisms and therapeutic strategies. Cell Transplant. 2007. 16(3):301-12. [Medline].
Ribai P, Nguyen K, Hahn-Barma V, Gourfinkel-An I, Vidailhet M, Legout A, et al. Psychiatric and cognitive difficulties as indicators of juvenile huntington disease onset in 29 patients. Arch Neurol. 2007 Jun. 64(6):813-9. [Medline].
Rosenstein LD. Differential diagnosis of the major progressive dementias and depression in middle and late adulthood: a summary of the literature of the early 1990s. Neuropsychol Rev. 1998 Sep. 8(3):109-67. [Medline].
Sharma P, Savy L, Britton J, Taylor R, Howick A, Patton M. Huntington’s disease: a molecular genetic and CT comparison. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1996 Feb. 60(2):206-8. [Medline].
Sorensen SA, Fenger K, Olsen JH. Significantly lower incidence of cancer among patients with Huntington disease: An apoptotic effect of an expanded polyglutamine tract?. Cancer. 1999 Oct 1. 86(7):1342-6. [Medline].
Starkstein SE, Brandt J, Bylsma F, Peyser C, Folstein M, Folstein SE. Neuropsychological correlates of brain atrophy in Huntington’s disease: a magnetic resonance imaging study. Neuroradiology. 1992. 34(6):487-9. [Medline].
Swash M. Clinical Neurology. New York, NY: Churchill Livingstone; 1991.
Tian J, Herdman SJ, Zee DS, Folstein SE. Postural stability in patients with Huntington’s disease. Neurology. 1992 Jun. 42(6):1232-8. [Medline].
Zakzanis KK. The subcortical dementia of Huntington’s disease. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 1998 Aug. 20(4):565-78. [Medline].
Idan Sharon, MD Consulting Staff, Departments of Neurology and Psychiatry, Cornell New York Methodist Hospital; Private Practice
Idan Sharon, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Neurology, Medical Society of the State of New York
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Roni Sharon, MD Neurologist, Private Practice
Roni Sharon, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Neurology, American Headache Society, American Neurological Association, International Headache Society
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Jaclyn P Wilkens Hofstra University
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Tulay Ersan, MD Chief of Geriatrics, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Geriatrics, Monmouth Medical Center
Tulay Ersan, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians-American Society of Internal Medicine, American Geriatrics Society, American Medical Association
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference
Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.
David Bienenfeld, MD Professor, Departments of Psychiatry and Geriatric Medicine, Wright State University, Boonshoft School of Medicine
David Bienenfeld, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Medical Association, American Psychiatric Association, Association for Academic Psychiatry
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Alan D Schmetzer, MD Professor Emeritus, Department of Psychiatry, Indiana University School of Medicine
Alan D Schmetzer, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Addiction Psychiatry, American Academy of Clinical Psychiatrists, American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, American Association for Physician Leadership, American Medical Association, American Psychiatric Association, International Society for ECT and Neurostimulation, American Neuropsychiatric Association
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Huntington Disease Dementia
Research & References of Huntington Disease Dementia|A&C Accounting And Tax Services
Source