Clinical Applications of Somatosensory Evoked Potentials

No Results

No Results

processing….

Somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) are generated by stimulation of afferent peripheral nerve fibers by either physiological or electrical means. SEPs were first recorded more than 50 years ago. For an explanation of their physiologic and anatomic basis and description of techniques, see Somatosensory Evoked Potentials: General Principles. In this article, the focus is on the clinical applications of SEPs.

SEPs can be recorded after physiological stimuli (eg, muscle stretch). However, electrical stimulation usually is administered to elicit the potential. Typically, a square wave of 0.2- to 2-millisecond duration is delivered to a peripheral nerve by electrodes, usually surface electrodes. For intraoperative monitoring, needle electrodes are used for stimulation since they require smaller currents, which reduce the stimulus artifact. The usual sites for SEP stimulation are the median nerve at the wrist, the common peroneal nerve at the knee, and the posterior tibial nerve. A SEP also may be recorded by stimulating the skin in various dermatomal areas, but the response is much weaker.

In mixed peripheral nerves, the threshold for sensory perception is lower than the threshold to elicit movement. For stimulation of mixed peripheral nerves, the stimulating current is adjusted to produce a minimal movement of the joint involved. This stimulation intensity typically is well tolerated by patients. Recording electrodes are placed on the scalp and over the cervical spine. For recording upper extremity SEPs, electrodes are placed over the Erb point. For recording lower extremity SEPs, electrodes are placed over the lumbosacral spine.

Waveforms are described in terms of morphology, amplitude, and dispersion. Each laboratory should establish reference values for latencies and interpeak latencies that are based on a patient’s age and height. Because limb cooling affects peripheral nerve conduction velocity, minimum skin temperature norms should be established for each laboratory.

Responses recorded are classified according to specific latencies. Short-latency SEPs refer to the portion of the SEP waveform that occurs within 25 milliseconds after stimulation of the upper extremity nerves, 40 milliseconds after stimulation of the peroneal nerve, or 50 milliseconds after stimulation of the tibial nerve. Long-latency SEPs refer to the waveforms recorded more than 100 milliseconds following stimulation of these nerves. Middle-latency SEP refers to waveforms that occur between these 2 periods.

Mixed nerve stimulation has become the standard for clinical use. Other methods include cutaneous nerve stimulation, dermatomal stimulation (which is more specific than cutaneous nerve stimulation), motor point stimulation, and paraspinal stimulation.

Madhok et al concluded that in the absence of brain injury in a rodent model, hypothermia induces significant increases to the SEP amplitude while increasing SEP latency. [1] Hypothermia also suppressed EEGs at different regions of the brain by different degrees. The changes to SEPs and EEG are both reversible with subsequent rewarming.

The SEP stimulus preferentially excites only the largest myelinated fibers in the peripheral nerve. These include cutaneous and subcutaneous fibers, somesthetic and proprioceptive fibers, and motor axons of equivalent diameter. The stimulus activates predominantly the large-diameter, fast-conducting group in muscles and group II cutaneous fibers. Stimulation produces an action potential that travels up the axon toward the spinal cord and past the cell bodies of the sensory axons of the large-fiber sensory system in the dorsal root ganglia to the ipsilateral posterior columns of the spinal cord. These signals then traverse a synapse in the dorsal column nuclei at the cervicomedullary junction.

The signals travel in second-order neurons to the ventroposterolateral nucleus of the thalamus (VPL) via the medial lemniscus. In the VPL, a synapse is made with a third-order neuron that travels to area 3b of the parietal sensory cortex. SEPs provide information concerning the integrity of the pathway through the brain, brain stem, spinal cord, dorsal roots, and peripheral nerves.

Although SEPs may reveal or localize a lesion involving the somatosensory pathways, they should be interpreted as extended neurologic examination. They do not indicate the underlying disease process and normal findings do not exclude an organic basis for symptoms. Despite these limitations, SEP studies may be helpful diagnostically as well as prognostically to determine the extent of pathologic involvement in different disorders.

Clinical uses of SEPs include the following:

Evaluation of the peripheral nervous system and the large-fiber sensory tracts in the CNS

Localization of the anatomic site of somatosensory pathway lesions

Identification of impaired conduction caused by axonal loss or demyelination

Confirmation of a nonorganic cause of sensory loss

Although SEP findings are not disease specific, they can confirm afferent conduction impairment associated with certain disorders.

SEPs have been used to confirm the presence of normal conduction pathways in patients with conversion disorder, malingering, or other psychological disturbances. Findings must be interpreted carefully, because normal SEPs can be seen in patients with organic sensory loss. For example, some patients with pure sensory strokes due to lacunar infarcts may have normal SEPs.

SEPs may be used in evaluation of the peripheral nervous system when traditional nerve conduction studies (NCSs) are not possible (for any reason) or are not reliable (eg, technical problems, or artifacts).

SEPs are rarely used to assess peripheral neuropathy since standard NCSs are the test of choice. The stimulation is applied at 2 or more sites and the responses are recorded over the scalp. In the presence of polyneuropathies and mononeuropathies, SEP waveforms recorded over the scalp may be absent or show delayed latencies with normal central conduction velocities. In this way, SEPs can be used to measure the afferent fiber conduction velocities of proximal segments. Higher stimulation currents are typically required in patients with peripheral neuropathies.

SSEP studies disclosed poorly formed and delayed cortical potentials with absent lumbar (N20) potentials, thereby suggesting the presence of proximal demyelination. SSEPs were normal in the patients with pure motor CIDP and multifocal motor neuropathy (MMN) and can thus help differentiate asymmetric forms of CIDP from MMN. These findings suggest that SSEPs may be an important complementary investigation to conventional NCSs in the diagnosis of chronic acquired demyelinating polyneuropathies (CADP).

Use of SEPs has been reported for the following peripheral nerve disorders:

Hereditary neuropathies (eg, Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, Friedreich ataxia)

Diabetic neuropathy

Inflammatory polyradiculopathies, such as Guillain-Barré syndrome, particularly early in the course of the disease, when distal conduction and F-wave studies may be normal

Chronic acquired demyelinating neuropathies

Infectious causes (eg, HIV)

Toxic neuropathies

The test of choice in focal neuropathy is standard NCSs. Entrapment neuropathies, such as carpal tunnel syndrome, may be found incidentally when SEPs are recorded. The use of SEP for detection of saphenous neuropathy, intercostal neuropathy, and trigeminal neuropathy has been reported. However, standard NCSs are the preferred diagnostic test for these conditions.

SEPs are useful for evaluation of brachial plexopathy and traumatic plexopathies. In thoracic outlet syndrome, SEPs are of limited value with regard to the neurogenic variety of plexopathy and have no established value in diagnosis of the nonneurogenic (ie, vascular) variety. The value of SEPs in preventing or minimizing intraoperative damage of the peripheral nervous system is unproven.

Studies suggest that SEPs may have some use in the evaluation of rootlet and root dysfunction. However, needle electromyography (EMG) provides superior information in these disorders and remains the test of choice.

SEPs may have some utility in the evaluation of acute lumbosacral root disease or in lumbosacral spinal stenosis.

No data are available.

EMG is the best neurophysiological tool for evaluation of this condition. SEPs may or may not have a limited role in these conditions.

Scalp-recorded potentials are absent in complete lesions of the cervical spinal cord. However, incomplete lesions yield varying abnormalities on SEPs. SEPs can help localize the sensory level in trauma and also may help in determining prognosis for functional outcome. Latencies and amplitudes of tibial SSEPs can change over time after spinal cord injury (SCI). The early recordability of a tibial SSEP is associated with a favorable functional and neurological status and outcome after SCI.

SEP monitoring is used widely to assess integrity of the spinal cord during surgery in which the spinal cord is manipulated. SEPs are used most often during scoliosis correction. Ischemia of ascending somatosensory pathways produces a drop in amplitude or loss of waveforms, thus warning the surgeon in time to take corrective action. Ischemic changes are usually widespread; rarely, motor function is lost when somatosensory pathways have not been affected.

The use of intraoperative neuromonitoring, especially SSEPs, MEPs and EMGs, during pediatric scoliosis repair has become commonplace to reduce the risk of potentially devastating postoperative neurologic deficits. [2]

The increased amplitude, particularly in cortical SSEPs (N20/P25), detected specifically during steady-state hypothermia seems to support the clinical use in monitoring the brain function; this is not only during cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass but also in other settings, such as therapeutic hypothermia procedures in an ICU. [3]

Other spinal procedures in which SEP monitoring is used include reduction of vertebral fractures and other vertebral injuries and spinal cord tumor surgery. Conduction abnormalities that selectively abolish the silent periods can distinguish between hydromyelia (a physiologically dilated central canal) and space-occupying syringomyelia.

Researchers evaluated the diagnostic accuracy of SSEP monitoring during scoliosis fusion and found SSEP to be a highly sensitive and specific test. Data also showed that iatrogenic spinal cord injury resulting in new neurological deficits was 340 times more likely to have changes in SSEP compared to those without any new deficits. [4]

See the list below:

Subacute combined degeneration

Cervical spondylosis and myelopathy

Syringomyelia, to evaluate the effect of spinal cord compression

Hereditary spastic paraplegia

Transverse myelitis

Multiple sclerosis – Lower-limb SEPs produce a higher yield for detecting abnormalities

Vascular lesions

Tumors

Myelomeningocele

Tethered cord syndrome

Infectious disorders (eg, human T-lymphocytic virus 1 and HIV)

SEPs are normal in Wallenberg’s syndrome but are generally abnormal when medial lemniscus is involved. SEPs are also unaffected and normal in some of the hemispheric (eg, pure motor lacunar infarctions, occipital lobe infarctions). In larger brainstem or hemispheric lesions, N20 and later waveforms may be delayed or absent. In lesions of the thalamocortical radiations, dissociation between the N20 and P22 waveform amplitudes may be observed. Changes in SEPs over time have been explored for their predictive value for recovery from stroke. This area remains investigational.

SEPs of the upper extremities are abnormal in about 60% of all patients with MS (definite, probable, and possible) and in about 40% of patients with asymptomatic MS. SEPs of the lower extremities have a higher frequency of abnormality, presumably since longer axons are more likely to have an area of demyelination. In clinical practice, SEPs of both the upper and lower extremities usually are performed. The change most frequently seen in MS is prolongation of central latencies. MRI has largely supplanted SEP testing in MS.

Abnormalities in SEPs are seen in adrenoleukodystrophy, adrenomyeloneuropathy, metachromatic leukodystrophy, heterozygotes for adrenoleukodystrophy and adrenomyeloneuropathy.

SEPs are useful in the evaluation of a comatose patient, not only for diagnostic purposes but also for prognosis. In addition to EEG, other neuromonitoring tools, such as SEPs, have a complementary role, surveying the integrity of the neuroaxis as an indicator of prognosis or illness progression in both acute brain and spinal injuries. [5] Central conduction times are not affected significantly by level of consciousness, hypothermia, or sedative-hypnotic medications such as barbiturate anesthesia. Thus, SEPs are often useful in conditions in which clinical examination is of limited value. A favorable outcome is expected in about 53% of comatose patients with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy and in 49% of patients with traumatic brain injury coma who have preservation of bilateral cortical SEP responses.

Rothstein has shown that median SEPs supplement and enhance neurologic examination findings in anoxic-ischemic coma and are useful as an early guide in predicting outcome. Greater use of SSEP in anoxic-ischemic coma has been recommended to identify those patients unlikely to recover and can be cost effective. [6] A pilot study done by Bouwes et al has revealed that bilaterally absent cortical N20 responses of median nerve SEPs performed during mild hypothermia after resuscitation can predict a poor neurologic outcome. A larger multicenter prospective cohort study to confirm these results is in progress by the same authors. [7]

The absence of cortical responses bilaterally is associated with an unfavorable prognosis (ie, an outcome of persistent vegetative state in the vast majority of patients). Unilateral preservation of cortical SEP responses offers hope for a favorable outcome. Determination of presence or absence of the N70 in patients with postanoxic coma gives additional information about the likelihood of poor outcome, but it is not precise enough to base treatment decisions solely on its absence.

Combination of clinical examination, electroencephalography reactivity, and serum neuron-specific enolase offers the best outcome predictive performance for prognostication of early postanoxic coma; somatosensory-evoked potentials do not add any complementary information. Although prognostication of poor outcome seems excellent, future studies are needed to further improve prediction of good prognosis, which still remains inaccurate. [8]

Wachter et al recently studied the use of multimodal electrophysiological monitoring to predict the outcome after subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). [9] They could not find a correlation between initial and last median, as well as tibial, SEP. Therefore, they concluded that these studies cannot be used as valid predictors for outcome after SAH. [10]

In brain death, peripheral SEP components are preserved. However, potentials generated by structures above the lower medulla are absent.

A study by Bosco et al examined prognostic value of SSEPs and CT scan evaluation in acute traumatic brain injury. The study revealed a highly significant improvement in outcome prediction when the model included a pool of amplitudes and latencies, referred to different early-evoked components pN20, pP25, fP20,cP22, N30, P45, and N60, associated to CT scan hypodensity values, compared with the use of the cortical parietal N20/P25 alone. [11]

Intraoperative SEPs are recorded routinely using electrode strips or grids or electrodes applied directly to the exposed cortex during neurosurgical procedures in and around the somatosensory cortex. The N20 response is used to identify the primary somatosensory cortex in the postcentral gyrus. By inference, the motor cortex in the precentral gyrus can be localized as well, and this information is used to guide the surgical procedure. Scalp-recorded SEPs have also been used to monitor cerebral ischemia during vascular surgery, such as carotid endarterectomy; however, EEG monitoring is used more widely for this application. The value of regional cerebral oximetry adds nothing to the information already provided by EEG and SEP in determining when to place a shunt during CEA.

Somatosensory response can be measured by magnetoencephalography (see images below). The generators of the N20m and later waveforms can be modeled as equivalent current dipoles. Usually, individual digits and the lip are stimulated, and the single dipoles of the cortical generators are overlaid on co-registered MRIs to create a map of the somatosensory cortex. SEPs are usually collected in outpatients several days prior to the surgery so that the information can be used by neurosurgeons to help in planning the approach to the anticipated surgery. The information also can be used to provide patients with an idea of the relative risk of neurologic deficits that could result from the surgery.

Use of motor evoked potentials (MEP) and SEP monitoring during thoracic and thoracoabdominal aortic surgery is controversial. Motor and somatosensory evoked potentials during thoracic and thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysm repair were analyzed. Irreversible changes were significantly associated with immediate neurologic deficit, and the findings were identical for SEP and MEP in this variable, indicating that the more complex MEP measures do not add further information to that obtained from SEP. Normal SEP and MEP findings had a strong negative predictive value, indicating that patients without signal loss are unlikely to awake with neurologic deficit.

Combined neurophysiological intraoperative monitoring with EMG and SEP recording and the selective use of MEPs is helpful for predicting and possibly preventing neurologic injury during cervical spine surgery.

Intraoperative SEP monitoring was reliable in ruling out spinal injury in descending thoracic and thoracoabdominal aortic repair, but had a low sensitivity. It did not predict delayed neurologic deficit. Spinal SEP change was an independent predictor of mortality and correlated with low preoperative glomerular filtration rate. Effects of various anesthetics used during surgical monitoring need to be kept in mind. Sloan et al have shown drug synergy when isoflurane is mixed with nitrous oxide. If these agents are used for anesthesia, the combination of these agents may produce more amplitude and latency changes than expected from individual agents. [12]

Eager et al emphasized the importance of the use of multimodality methods, including the use of SEPs in spine cases based upon their study of 2069 cases. [13]

In Friedreich ataxia, SEPs recorded from the scalp usually show normal peripheral nerve conduction latencies but prolonged central conduction times. Degenerative disorders of the brain stem, such as spinal cerebellar degeneration, usually show a similar SEP pattern. In Huntington disease, latencies are normal but the amplitudes may be low (similar to the low-voltage pattern found in the EEG).

SEPs are normal in many degenerative disorders, including Parkinson disease, [14] Alzheimer disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (particularly early in the course of the disease). [15] An unusually large amplitude response is seen in the SEPs of patients with progressive myoclonic epilepsy. In cerebrovascular disease or head trauma, abnormal SEPs are recorded when infarction, hemorrhage, or direct injury disrupts the integrity of ascending somatosensory pathways.

Overview

What are somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs)?

What is the clinical interpretation of somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs)?

What are the clinical uses of somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs)?

What is the role of somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) in the evaluation of the peripheral nervous system?

What is the role of somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) in the evaluation of peripheral neuropathy?

Which peripheral nerve disorders can be assessed by somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs)?

What is the role of somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) in the evaluation of focal neuropathy?

What is the role of somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) in the evaluation of plexopathy?

What is the role of somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) in the evaluation of ventral rootlets and roots?

What is the role of somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) in the evaluation of lumbosacral root disease?

What is the role of somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) in the evaluation of thoracic root disease?

What is the role of somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) in the evaluation of cervical root disease?

What is the role of somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) in the evaluation of trauma of the spinal cord?

What is the role of somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) in the monitoring of the spinal cord during surgery?

Which spinal cord conditions can be assessed by somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs)?

What is the role of somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) in the evaluation of brain stem lesions and stroke?

What is the role of somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) in the evaluation of multiple sclerosis?

Which demyelinating diseases can be assessed by somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs)?

What is the role of somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) in the evaluation of a comatose patient?

What is the role of somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) in the evaluation of subarachnoid hemorrhage?

What is the role of somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) in the evaluation of brain death?

What is the role of somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) in the evaluation of traumatic brain injury?

What is the role of somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) in intraoperative monitoring?

Which degenerative disorders can be assessed by somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs)?

Madhok J, Wu D, Xiong W, Geocadin RG, Jia X. Hypothermia Amplifies Somatosensory-evoked Potentials in Uninjured Rats. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol. 2012 Mar 20. [Medline].

Glover CD, Carling NP. Neuromonitoring for Scoliosis Surgery. Anesthesiol Clin. 2014 Mar. 32(1):101-114. [Medline].

Zanatta P, Bosco E, Comin A, Mazzarolo AP, Di Pasquale P, Forti A, et al. Effect of Mild Hypothermic Cardiopulmonary Bypass on the Amplitude of Somatosensory-evoked Potentials. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol. 2014 Apr. 26(2):161-6. [Medline].

Thirumala PD, Cheng HL, Loke YK, Kojo Hamilton D, Balzer J, Crammond DJ. Diagnostic accuracy of somatosensory evoked potential monitoring during scoliosis fusion. J Clin Neurosci. 2016 Mar 25. [Medline].

Rosenthal ES. The utility of EEG, SSEP, and other neurophysiologic tools to guide neurocritical care. Neurotherapeutics. 2012 Jan. 9(1):24-36. [Medline]. [Full Text].

Rothstein TL. The utility of median somatosensory evoked potentials in anoxic-ischemic coma. Rev Neurosci. 2009. 20(3-4):221-33. [Medline].

Bouwes A, Binnekade JM, Zandstra DF, Koelman JH, van Schaik IN, Hijdra A, et al. Somatosensory evoked potentials during mild hypothermia after cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Neurology. 2009 Nov 3. 73(18):1457-61. [Medline].

Oddo M, Rossetti AO. Early Multimodal Outcome Prediction After Cardiac Arrest in Patients Treated With Hypothermia. Crit Care Med. 2014 Jan 22. [Medline].

Zhao J, Luo X, Zhang Z, Chen K, Shi G, Zhou J. [Use of somatosensory evoked potentials for preoperative assessment in patients with severe aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage before surgical or interventional treatment: a prospective observational cohort study]. Zhonghua Wei Zhong Bing Ji Jiu Yi Xue. 2018 Mar. 30 (3):251-256. [Medline].

Wachter D, Christophis P, Stein M, Oertel MF. Use of multimodal electrophysiological monitoring to predict outcome after subarachnoid hemorrhage? A prospective series. J Neurosurg Sci. 2011 Sep. 55(3):179-87. [Medline].

Bosco E, Zanatta P, Ponzin D, Marton E, Feletti A, Scarpa B, et al. Prognostic Value of Somatosensory-evoked Potentials and CT Scan Evaluation in Acute Traumatic Brain Injury. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol. 2014 Feb 26. [Medline].

Sloan T, Sloan H, Rogers J. Nitrous oxide and isoflurane are synergistic with respect to amplitude and latency effects on sensory evoked potentials. J Clin Monit Comput. 2010 Apr. 24(2):113-23. [Medline].

Eager M, Shimer A, Jahangiri FR, Shen F, Arlet V. Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring (IONM): lessons learned from 32 case events in 2069 spine cases. Am J Electroneurodiagnostic Technol. 2011 Dec. 51(4):247-63. [Medline].

Macerollo A, Brown MJN, Kilner JM, Chen R. Neurophysiological Changes Measured Using Somatosensory Evoked Potentials. Trends Neurosci. 2018 Mar 14. [Medline].

Isak B, Tankisi H, Johnsen B, Pugdahl K, Finnerup NB, Fuglsang-Frederiksen A. Laser and somatosensory evoked potentials in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Clin Neurophysiol. 2016 Oct. 127 (10):3322-8. [Medline].

Arch AE, Chiappa K, Greer DM. False positive absent somatosensory evoked potentials in cardiac arrest with therapeutic hypothermia. Resuscitation. 2014 Jun. 85(6):e97-8. [Medline].

Achouh PE, Estrera AL, Miller CC 3rd, Azizzadeh A, Irani A, Wegryn TL, et al. Role of somatosensory evoked potentials in predicting outcome during thoracoabdominal aortic repair. Ann Thorac Surg. 2007 Sep. 84(3):782-7; discussion 787-8. [Medline].

Adhikary SD, Manickam BP. Unusual waveforms during SSEP monitoring–facts and artifacts. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol. 2008 Jul. 20(3):207. [Medline].

Aminoff MJ. Use of somatosensory evoked potentials to evaluate the peripheral nervous system. J Clin Neurophysiol. 1987 Apr. DA – 19870925(2):135-44. [Medline].

Aminoff MJ, Eisen AA. AAEM minimonograph 19: somatosensory evoked potentials. Muscle Nerve. 1998 Mar. 21(3):277-90. [Medline].

Anderson NE, Frith RW, Synek VM. Somatosensory evoked potentials in syringomyelia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1986 Dec. 49(12):1407-10. [Medline].

Aramideh M, Hoogendijk JE, Aalfs CM, et al. Somatosensory evoked potentials, sensory nerve potentials and sensory nerve conduction in hereditary motor and sensory neuropathy type I. J Neurol. 1992 May. 239(5):277-83. [Medline].

Arch AE, Chiappa K, Greer DM. False positive absent somatosensory evoked potentials in cardiac arrest with therapeutic hypothermia. Resuscitation. 2014 Feb 27. [Medline].

Bartholomi L, Leili S, Negrin P. Somatosensory evoked potentials in diabetes type I. Electroencephalo Clin Neurophysiol. 1991. 31:43-6.

Chiappa K. Short-latency somatosensory evoked potentials: interpretation. Evoked Potentials in Clinical Medicine. New York: Raven Press; 1983. 251-312.

Chiappa KH, Hill RA, et al. Clinical Neurology. Philadelphia: Lippencott Raven; 1998.

Chung I, Glow JA, Dimopoulos V, Walid MS, Smisson HF, Johnston KW, et al. Upper-limb somatosensory evoked potential monitoring in lumbosacral spine surgery: a prognostic marker for position-related ulnar nerve injury. Spine J. 2008 Aug 4. [Medline].

D’Alpa F, Sallemi G, Triffiletti L, Grasso A. Cervical SEPs from radicular (digital) upper limb nerves stimulation. Acta Neurol (Napoli). 1986 Dec. 8(6):602-9. [Medline].

Dawson GD. Cerebral responses to nerve stimulation in man. Br Med Bull. 1950. 6(4):326-9. [Medline].

Dreyfuss P, Dumitru D, Prewitt-Buchanan L. Intercostal somatosensory-evoked potentials. A new technique. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 1993 Jun. 72(3):144-50. [Medline].

Friedell ML, Clark JM, Graham DA, Isley MR, Zhang XF. Cerebral oximetry does not correlate with electroencephalography and somatosensory evoked potentials in determining the need for shunting during carotid endarterectomy. J Vasc Surg. 2008 Sep. 48(3):601-6. [Medline].

Glover JL, Worth RM, Bendick PJ, et al. Evoked responses in the diagnosis of thoracic outlet syndrome. Surgery. 1981 Jan. 89(1):86-93. [Medline].

Goldie WD, Chiappa KH, Young RR, Brooks EB. Brainstem auditory and short-latency somatosensory evoked responses in brain death. Neurology. 1981 Mar. 31(3):248-56. [Medline].

Haupt WF, Horsch S. Evoked potential monitoring in carotid surgery: a review of 994 cases. Neurology. 1992 Apr. 42(4):835-8. [Medline].

Jerrett SA, Cuzzone LJ, Pasternak BM. Thoracic outlet syndrome. Electrophysiologic reappraisal. Arch Neurol. 1984 Sep. 41(9):960-3. [Medline].

Kakigi R. The effect of aging on somatosensory evoked potentials following stimulation of the posterior tibial nerve in man. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1987 Jul. 68(4):277-86. [Medline].

Kelleher MO, Tan G, Sarjeant R, Fehlings MG. Predictive value of intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring during cervical spine surgery: a prospective analysis of 1055 consecutive patients. J Neurosurg Spine. 2008 Mar. 8(3):215-21. [Medline].

Keyhani K, Miller CC 3rd, Estrera AL, Wegryn T, Sheinbaum R, Safi HJ. Analysis of motor and somatosensory evoked potentials during thoracic and thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysm repair. J Vasc Surg. 2008 Sep 30. [Medline].

Knowlton RC. Magnetoencephalography: clinical application in epilepsy. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2003 Jul. 3(4):341-8. [Medline].

Komanetsky RM, Novak CB, Mackinnon SE, et al. Somatosensory evoked potentials fail to diagnose thoracic outlet syndrome. J Hand Surg [Am]. 1996 Jul. 21(4):662-6. [Medline].

Kraft GH, Aminoff MJ, Baran EM. Somatosensory evoked potentials: clinical uses. AAEM Somatosensory Evoked Potentials Subcommittee. American Association of Electrodiagnostic Medicine. Muscle Nerve. 1998 Feb. 21(2):252-8. [Medline].

Krarup-Hansen A, Fugleholm K, Helweg-Larsen S. Examination of distal involvement in cisplatin-induced neuropathy in man: an electrophysiological and histological study with particular reference to touch receptor function. Brain. 1993 Oct. 116 ( Pt 5):1017-41. [Medline].

Krumholz A, Weiss HD, Goldstein PJ, Harris KC. Evoked responses in vitamin B12 deficiency. Ann Neurol. 1981 Apr. 9(4):407-9. [Medline].

Li C, Houlden DA, Rowed DW. Somatosensory evoked potentials and neurological grades as predictors of outcome in acute spinal cord injury. J Neurosurg. 1990 Apr. 72(4):600-9. [Medline].

Loncarevic N, Tiric-Campara M, Mulabegovic N. Somatosensory evoked cerebral potentials (SSEP) in multiple sclerosis. Med Arh. 2008. 62(2):80-1. [Medline].

Louis AA, Gupta P, Perkash I. Localization of sensory levels in traumatic quadriplegia by segmental somatosensory evoked potentials. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1985 Jul. 62(4):313-6. [Medline].

Nuwer MR. Fundamentals of evoked potentials and common clinical applications today. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1998 Feb. 106(2):142-8. [Medline].

Oddo M, Rossetti AO. Predicting neurological outcome after cardiac arrest. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2011 Jun. 17(3):254-9. [Medline].

Olney RK, Aminoff MJ. Electrodiagnostic features of the Guillain-Barre syndrome: the relative sensitivity of different techniques. Neurology. 1990 Mar. 40(3 Pt 1):471-5. [Medline].

Robinson LR, Micklesen PJ. Somatosensory evoked potentials in coma prognosis. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am. 2004 Feb. 15(1):43-61. [Medline].

Roser F, Ebner FH, Liebsch M, Dietz K, Tatagiba M. A new concept in the electrophysiological evaluation of syringomyelia. J Neurosurg Spine. 2008 Jun. 8(6):517-23. [Medline].

Rowed DW, McLean JA, Tator CH. Somatosensory evoked potentials in acute spinal cord injury: prognostic value. Surg Neurol. 1978 Mar. 9(3):203-10. [Medline].

Roy MW, Gilmore R, Walsh JW. Evaluation of children and young adults with tethered spinal cord syndrome. Utility of spinal and scalp recorded somatosensory evoked potentials. Surg Neurol. 1986 Sep. 26(3):241-8. [Medline].

Slimp JC, Janczakowski J, Seed LJ, Kraft GH. Comparison of median and posterior tibial nerve somatosensory evoked potentials in ambulatory patients with definite multiple sclerosis. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 1990 Dec. 69(6):293-6. [Medline].

Snowden ML, Haselkorn JK, Kraft GH, et al. Dermatomal somatosensory evoked potentials in the diagnosis of lumbosacral spinal stenosis: comparison with imaging studies. Muscle Nerve. 1992 Sep. 15(9):1036-44. [Medline].

Spiess M, Schubert M, Kliesch U, Halder P. Evolution of tibial SSEP after traumatic spinal cord injury: baseline for clinical trials. Clin Neurophysiol. 2008 May. 119(5):1051-61. [Medline].

Synek VM. Somatosensory evoked potentials after stimulation of digital nerves in upper limbs: normative data. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1986 Nov. 65(6):460-3. [Medline].

Tirakotai W, Hellwig D, Bertalanffy H, Riegel T. Localization of precentral gyrus in image-guided surgery for motor cortex stimulation. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 2007. 97:75-9. [Medline].

Yiannikas C, McLeod JG, Walsh JC. Somatosensory evoked responses in the diagnosis of thoracic outlet syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1983 Mar. 46(3):234-40. [Medline].

Yiannikas C, Vucic S. Utility of somatosensory evoked potentials in chronic acquired demyelinating neuropathy. Muscle Nerve. 2008 Nov. 38(5):1447-54. [Medline].

Zandbergen EG, Koelman JH, de Haan RJ, Hijdra A. SSEPs and prognosis in postanoxic coma: only short or also long latency responses?. Neurology. 2006 Aug 22. 67(4):583-6. [Medline].

Jasvinder Chawla, MD, MBA Chief of Neurology, Hines Veterans Affairs Hospital; Professor of Neurology, Loyola University Medical Center

Jasvinder Chawla, MD, MBA is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Neurology, American Association of Neuromuscular and Electrodiagnostic Medicine, American Clinical Neurophysiology Society, American Medical Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Jorge G Burneo, MD, MSPH Assistant Professor, Epilepsy Program, Department of Clinical Neurological Sciences, London Health Sciences Centre, University of Western Ontario, Canada

Jorge G Burneo, MD, MSPH is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Neurology, American Epilepsy Society

Disclosure: Received grant/research funds from UCB Canada for other; Received consulting fee from UCB Canada for consulting.

Gregory L Barkley, MD Director of the Comprehensive Epilepsy Program, Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System; Associate Professor, Case Western Reserve University

Gregory L Barkley, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Neurology, American Epilepsy Society, American Medical Association, Michigan State Medical Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.

Norberto Alvarez, MD Assistant Professor, Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School; Consulting Staff, Department of Neurology, Boston Children’s Hospital; Medical Director, Wrentham Developmental Center

Norberto Alvarez, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Neurology, American Epilepsy Society, Child Neurology Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Selim R Benbadis, MD Professor, Director of Comprehensive Epilepsy Program, Departments of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Tampa General Hospital, University of South Florida Morsani College of Medicine

Selim R Benbadis, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Neurology, American Academy of Sleep Medicine, American Clinical Neurophysiology Society, American Epilepsy Society, American Medical Association

Disclosure: Serve(d) as a director, officer, partner, employee, advisor, consultant or trustee for: Acorda, Livanova, Eisai, Greenwich, Lundbeck, Neuropace, Sunovion, Upsher-Smith.<br/>Serve(d) as a speaker or a member of a speakers bureau for: Livanova, Eisai, Greenwich, Lundbeck, Neuropace, Sunovion.<br/>Received research grant from: Acorda, Livanova, Greenwich, Lundbeck, Sepracor, Sunovion, UCB, Upsher-Smith.

Clinical Applications of Somatosensory Evoked Potentials

Research & References of Clinical Applications of Somatosensory Evoked Potentials|A&C Accounting And Tax Services
Source

error: Content is protected !!